Gender differences between men and women. Basic gender differences Gender differences between men and women psychology

People encounter differences between men and women every day; they are obvious to ordinary consciousness. However, the psychology of gender differences defines them as complexly determined phenomena, where the influence of gender is difficult to define and prove.

The history of the psychology of gender differences (or the psychology of comparison between men and women) reflects the evolution of ideas about gender in the humanities and psychology. These ideas clearly link mental differences between the sexes with biological or social determinants.

For supporters of biological determination, sexual differentiation is a universal biological process, its starting point is biological sexual dimorphism, which is complemented and built upon by a system of mental differences and manifests itself in a certain set of individual differences in psychophysiological reactions, cognitive processes, abilities, interests, and behavioral manifestations of men and women. The argumentation in this approach centers around anatomical, morphological, physiological characteristics: hormonal differences, development of the cerebral hemispheres, body size, muscle mass, etc.

In one of the first of its kind, the metabolic concept of Alfred Foulier (1838-1912), psychological differences are associated with metabolic processes in the bodies of men and women. In a woman’s body, anabolic processes occur more intensely, including a focus on nutrition, integration, energy conservation and forming a picture of their behavior, expressed in the desire for peace and accumulation of strength. Catabolic processes, more related to reproduction, disintegration, energy consumption, more developed in men, determine the picture of male behavior and explain their intense muscular and intellectual expenditure. Highly developed reactions of excitation in men and inhibition in women derived from metabolic processes cause further gender differences.

Fouillet considered the facts of differences at the prepsychic (cellular, embryonic, morphological, physiological) and mental (features of animal behavior, differences in temperaments, emotionality, love and motherhood, mental abilities, perception, memory and learning, mental pathologies) levels.

The modern theory of D. Broverman and co-authors proves that the differences are stimulated by hormones - estrogens and androgens. The authors show that women have better problem-solving abilities, defined in terms of speed and accuracy of their execution, while men have better problem-solving abilities, defined in terms of “insight.” These differences, according to the authors, are psychophysiological, not social, since they are even confirmed by animal studies.

The influence of androgens on brain structures is indicated by the neuroandrogenetic approach. The influence of sex hormones lies in their feminizing or masculinizing function, which, in turn, controls behavioral characteristics. With such an explanation, androgenization sets a program for male behavior, the signs of which are: 1) offensive erotic behavior; 2) aggressive behavior; 3) spatial orientation; 4) territorial behavior; 5) endurance of pain; 6) slow assimilation of defensive conditioned reflexes; 7) weak manifestation of emotional reactions in response to a threat; 8) persistence in completing a task without reinforcement; 9) weak connection with immediate family; 10) group behavior; 11) search activity; 12) “predatory” behavior associated with hunting.

Proponents of the theory of functionalism (T. Parsons, R. Belz) spoke about the positive function of gender differentiation, defining differences from the nature of gender roles performed. A woman’s ability to bear children and care for children determines her expressive role, while a man becomes her instrumental partner: it is impossible to radically change this differentiation.

One of the most influential theories of differences is the psychoanalytic concept, which declared the sexual instinct to be the driving force of mental development (3. Freud, K. G. Jupg, A. Adler, K. Horney, etc.). Psychoanalysts attribute the main role in sexual differentiation to biological factors, emphasizing the importance of emotions and the possibilities of imitation by adults, and consider the main mechanism of differences to be the process of identification of a child with his parents in a situation of family relationships.

In traditional psychoanalysis, male and female models behaviors are diametrically opposed in their qualities, and the personality then develops harmoniously and fully when it follows the intended models. The model of typically male behavior is manifestations of aggressiveness, activity, desire to achieve a goal, rationality, determination, and the ability to be creative. Typically female behavior is characterized by passivity, dependence, high emotionality, weakness of social interests, indecisiveness, conformity, inability to logical thinking and creativity, lack of desire for achievement and sense of justice, predisposition to envy.

The idealization of traditional gender roles and the idea that deviations from the standards of masculinity and femininity are tragic for personal development were subsequently criticized and revised. In particular, studies by E. Maccoby and K. Jacklip showed that high femininity in women often correlates with increased anxiety and low self-esteem; highly feminine women and highly masculine men have worse adaptive capabilities. Children whose behavior conforms to gender expectations often have lower intelligence and less creativity. J. Stockard and M. Johnson argued that psychoanalytic standards cannot be ideal models for modern men and women, since the traditional understanding of femininity makes a girl a bad mother - helpless, dependent, passive.

The need to clearly distinguish between sexual differences themselves and gender differences that underlie sex-role behavior formed the basis for concepts that consider differences through the prism of socio-cultural determinism. Social approach theories view gender in terms of social categories and constructs.

From the point of view of neo-Marxists, inequalities in gender roles and behavioral characteristics of the sexes are rooted in the class structure of society, which excludes freedom of behavior and choice of role. Anthropological research proves that the distribution labor activity and the type of human behavior are not differentiated biologically. Social roles determine the mode of production characteristic of a given society and the social relations of people. In particular, H. Hartman's works examine the complex connections between capitalism, patriarchy and the economic structure of society.

The theory of social learning (A. Bandura, R. Walters) pays attention to the reinforcement of gender behavior from the external environment. The main principle of learning is the differentiation of behavior through observation, reward for gender-appropriate behavior, and punishment for inappropriate behavior. This theory emphasizes the influence of agents of socialization, microenvironment and social norms on the child's external sexual behavior.

The theory of sexual typification attaches decisive importance to reinforcement mechanisms. Girls and boys receive positive reinforcement for gender-appropriate feminine or masculine behavior: the individual “learns to distinguish patterns of behavior differentiated by gender, then generalize this particular experience to new situations and, finally, follow the appropriate rules” (W. Michel).

Similar specific descriptions of typical behavior for boys and girls are given by proponents of the theory of cognitive development. They consider differences and gender-role characteristics of behavior as a consequence of the assimilation of cognitive structures, processing educational information about the peculiarities of gender behavior and the irreversibility of gender (L. Kohlberg, S. Thompson). The presence of early gender differences is explained not by biological instincts or arbitrary cultural norms, but by the organization of the child’s cognitive sphere in accordance with his gender role and manifestations of his self-categorization (the child’s assignment of himself to a certain gender). Gender differences here are formed as the child masters information about the world and his place in it, in the process of learning and assimilating moral norms, and the mechanism of the process of gender self-determination is the need to maintain a stable and positive self-image and adapt to the surrounding reality.

The extensive experimental body of research on gender differences suggests that there is no evidence of fundamental innate differences in psychological characteristics men and women are not enough to justify the traditional inequality of social roles that exists in society (W. Maccoby, V. Jacklin). The study of anatomical and physiological parameters (chromosomal set, balance of male and female hormones, etc.) and the factor of an individual’s attribution to one or another sex showed a direct correlation between them, however, even for children who have anatomical and physiological inclinations of both sexes, the factor of self-attribution is decisive to one gender or another (D. Mani,

A. Erhard). Research by S. Bem has shown that, contrary to prevailing views on polytypical characteristics, the adaptation of individuals is influenced by androgyny, the presence of traits of both sexes.

Gender studies in Russia, as well as in the West, until the mid-1990s. positioned as the field of gender psychology. B. G. Ananyev noted that the main, most fundamental differences in the mental activity of people are differences due to age and gender. Sexual dimorphism - anatomical differences between representatives of the same biological species - determines in the human psyche the main determinants of individual differences, the specifics of interpersonal interaction, the nature of internal experiences and emotional reactions, attitude towards oneself and others, motivation, role behavior, etc.

The theory of sexual dimorphism, which explains the mechanism of the evolutionary process, was formulated by the domestic scientist V. A. Geodakyan in the 1960s, and continues to be developed at the present time. According to this theory, the differentiation of the behavior of male and female individuals is evolutionarily appropriate, genetically fixed in the corresponding psychophysical organization: in the formation of the genetic fund of the population, the female sex has a greater role in expressing the tendency of heredity, and the male sex - in variability, which is a beneficial form of information contact with the species. Wednesday

The female sex is considered as a stable core of the population, the male sex is its “mobile” shell, new information from the environment first enters the male subsystem, where the changes that occur are sketchily checked. If external conditions are of sufficient strength and evolutionary expediency, new genetic tendencies are formed that can be transmitted to offspring. The evolution of any trait in the male sex begins and ends earlier than in the female sex, i.e. a new trait in phylogeny appears first in the male sex, then after many generations it is transmitted to the female sex. According to the genetics of sex, men are carriers of evolving traits, and women are carriers of conservative ones. The magnitude of variation of any characteristics in men is greater than in women, with equal mean values.

The provisions of this theory can explain many facts of greater vulnerability of males than females. Statistics show: out of 100 girls and 107 boys born, the same 100 girls and 95 boys survive to the age of 30. Women have a longer life expectancy (by 8-10 years) and suffer less from hereditary diseases. Men die 4.5 times more often from infectious diseases, 5 times more often from injuries and poisonings, and much more often from malignant tumors.

The range of congenital characteristics and developmental options in men is also much greater than in women. Men have more beneficial and harmful genetic variations. Thus, for every 100 deaf girls there are 122 deaf boys. Deviations in color vision are also more common in boys. Among children with strabismus, stuttering, dyslalia, delay mental development there are also significantly more boys. Speech therapy groups kindergartens and groups for children with special developmental needs mostly consist of boys. Among boys there are more both mentally retarded and gifted.

The theory of V. A. Geodakyan does not contrast the masculine and feminine principles as “the best and the worst,” but, on the contrary, emphasizes the complementarity in their relationships, the need for interaction. Continuing this idea,

V.P. Bagrunov established that species and individual variability of psychological functions is a significant factor in sexual dimorphism. Thus, species variability of sensorimotor and intellectual functions is higher in men, and individual variability is higher in women. In men, a high dispersion of indicators of these functions is more often observed. Men have greater ability to solve new problems, but women achieve better results when these types of activities are stereotyped. All this indicates that men are characterized by great species variability, which creates the preconditions for the emergence of new forms of behavior; Women are characterized by greater species rigidity, which determines the preservation of the gene pool of the population. However, at the individual level, the sensorimotor and intellectual functions of men are rigid, which contributes to the transmission useful information into the gene pool, and women are characterized by individual variability, which ensures more reliable adaptation in the environment.

These findings demonstrate the impossibility of directly substantiating the mental qualities of men and women by their anatomical and physiological characteristics; moreover, they do not allow us to reduce the patterns and mechanisms of the development of gender characteristics only to biological or social determinants. Sexual dichotomy manifests itself at all levels of a person’s mental organization, i.e. gender differences are a biosocial problem.

Differences are formed at the embryonic stage of development and are the basis for sexual identification. Gender differences include differences in subjective attitudes, norms, values, interests, and social roles that are acquired and manifested in the process of socialization in boys and girls. There are no absolute differences between the sexes in terms of severity; within each sex there are significant differences in all anatomical, physiological, psychological and socio-psychological characteristics.

In modern gender psychology, the direction of comprehensive, systematic research into the psychology of gender differences (multi- and multidisciplinary), which presupposes the unity of the study of biological, social and psychological factors, is actively developing (I. V. Groshev, L. N. Ozhigova, A. A. Chekalina). “Sex differences represent one of the most integrative systems, covering all levels of human activity (from spontaneous non-verbal-motor activity to complex social species behavior and activity), they act as a factor of integrity and as one of the basal components of the natural foundations of the potentials of the subject of activity.”

Returning to the understanding of differences from the point of view of the gender approach, which distinguishes the concepts of sex and gender, let us consider the empirical facts and patterns accumulated in science.

1. Psychophysiological differences. Studies of certain characteristics of gender differences have revealed a higher speed of simple visual as well as complex auditory sensorimotor reactions in young men. The difference between a complex and a simple sensorimotor reaction lies in the complexity of the information processing process, the processes of signal recognition and spatial coordination (E. N. Yakunina et al.).

The time of a simple sensorimotor reaction characterizes the speed of occurrence and disappearance of excitation and inhibition, the maximum frequency of generation of nerve impulses, which is a criterion for the excitability of the central nervous system. Complex sensorimotor reactions characterize the speed of excitation and inhibition in the central nervous system, the ability for differentiated inhibition and the accuracy of the work performed. The speed of the motor reaction to sensorimotor stimuli is higher in boys than in girls (D. Z. Shibkova), the accuracy of the reaction to a moving object depends on the strength of the nervous system and the functional mobility of nervous processes. Advantages in speed characteristics are accompanied by a large number of errors in differentiating visual stimuli (A.V. Zaitsev).

Other studies also point to differences in the psychomotor area. Boys and girls differ significantly in each of the individual properties of neurodynamics: strength, mobility, lability (L. D. Moshkina). In general, women are less reactive, excitable and labile; men are somewhat more sensitive and responsive in response to weak sound signals (B. G. Ananyev).

Studies of the structure and properties of temperament confirm the ideas of significant gender differences in the properties of activity, emotionality, adaptive functions (D. Carson, T. McNeil, I. Person-Blesnow,

S. Ashadi). A number of studies have found differences only in the properties of emotionality in women (I. Goodair) or their total absence (R. Guerin, A. Gottfried, K. Keenan, R. Shaw). Some studies draw attention to the absence of gender differences in the structure of temperament in childhood and their presence in adulthood (A. Sanson).

In the studies of V. M. Rusalov, objective differences were established in the indicators of subject plasticity, subject ergicity and individual pace, which were more pronounced in men; Indicators of scales of emotionality and social plasticity are more pronounced in women. No gender differences were found on the social ergicity and social tempo scales. However, in the research of this scientist, there are no clearly defined differences in the structure of temperament, which indirectly confirms the influence social conditions, learning that influences the development of psychodynamic properties.

Differences in the psychophysiological sphere revealed advantages for girls when performing small movements and operations, accuracy and clarity of differentiation of low-strength muscle tension, manifested in adolescence. The studies of B. G. Ananyev revealed a smoother development of psychomotor functions of the hands in girls, which indicates greater stability of inductive relationships between both hemispheres of the girls’ brain. However, in the dynamics of the working day, girls show signs of greater fatigue (N.V. Makarenko). Boys are superior to the integration of speed and accuracy of psychomotor skills, they solve sensorimotor tasks better, but they are inferior to girls in the manifestation of the training effect and in solving stereotypical problems (V.I. Bagrunov).

Research by L.A. Golovey found gender differences in psychomotor indicators, closely related to the energy functions of the body (strength, tremor, muscle tone), as well as in indicators reflecting the temporal organization of movements (walking). There were no gender differences in the speed and accuracy of performing graphic movements.

Both girls and boys have their own characteristics of self-regulation of various functional systems (D. V. Berdnikov, V. V. Plotnikov, L. V. Koneva), for example, the accuracy and stability of the assessment of tone duration and spatio-temporal parameters of the test object , sensitivity to additional information in this process, plasticity and learning ability.

The results of comparative studies of gender differences in psychophysiological functions cannot be considered sufficiently representative due to, firstly, the limited sample, and secondly, the impossibility of their generalization, since they are devoted to various manifestations (for example, motor behavior accessible to external observation, solving experimental motor problems, graphic movements , technique of working movements, tremor, psychomotor reactions, etc.) and various characteristics. It is also logical to assume that nervous system men and women specialized in the process of adaptation to certain living conditions during evolutionary development.

2. Psychological level of differences. The most revealing results are the results of comparative studies of gender differences in psychological characteristics. Men have an advantage in visual-spatial and mathematical thinking, women are more successful in verbal and intuitive information processing (T. V. Vinogradova, V. V. Semenov).

Gender studies intellectual development compare indicators of mnemonic processes: boys have more developed spatial memory; In girls, the ease of memorizing verbal material prevails.

The levels of development of imaginative thinking in the period of maturity differ: in men it has more high level development and correlates with memory, attention, mood; in women, imaginative thinking is less developed and interacts with the emotional sphere and attention (N. M. Peisakhov).

Gender differences are manifested in the qualitative characteristics of intellectual activity. The general intelligence of boys has a clearly defined structure with a predominance of the nonverbal component, in contrast to the more poorly integrated intelligence of girls. The main differences in adolescence lie in the effectiveness of thought processes formed due to indicators of inductive thinking (I. O. Chorayan).

Men are characterized by field independence, i.e. more often demonstrate behavior independent of the field, which manifests itself in a predominant orientation towards one’s own goal and in ignoring the pressure of the current situation. Women's field dependence is positively correlated with success in social interaction (J. Levy, W. Heller).

Studies of types of search and decision-making reveal that men are more likely to make impulsive decisions and decisions with risk, while women are more likely to make cautious and balanced decisions (B. G. Ananyev).

Girls are superior in selectivity, stability and attention span. Young men solve sensorimotor and intellectual tasks better, but with some training the differences smooth out. In some of the works, researchers come to conclusions about the predominance of parameters of mathematical and abstract thinking among young men.

Under conditions of intellectual load, features of shifts in success are revealed willpower, indicating faster recovery processes in situations of stress in women, the success of volitional effort in general in men compared to women.

3. Data on personal and socio-psychological differences in the mental manifestations of girls and boys are quite contradictory. The list of gender differences includes differences in partial intellectual abilities, differences in the sphere of emotions and motivations, and a variety of characterological and personal manifestations.

In studies of emotional processes in women, compared to men, the understanding of emotions prevails (I. N. Andreeva, S. Bern, G. Orme). Women are better at recognizing expressive information. Otherwise, the differences are more qualitative than quantitative. Men and women experience certain events equally and demonstrate identical physiological reactions. However, they explain the causes of emotions differently, in accordance with their gender role. General level emotional intelligence in girls is associated with the cognitive processes of understanding and comprehending emotions, in boys - to a greater extent with the quality of interpersonal connections (I. N. Andreeva).

A comparison of women and men reveals differences in some personality indicators (self-assertion, ability to defend one’s rights), ability to manage stress (stress tolerance, impulse control) and adaptability (determining credibility, problem solving process). Among the main personality traits, aggressiveness, achievement motive, and emotional stability are more pronounced in men, and social orientation in women. The social behavior of women and men also differs. Men demonstrate greater aggression and a tendency towards competitive forms of social interaction. Women are prone to irosocial behavior.

Studies by E. Maccoby, K. Jacklin, S.E. Cross, L. Madson and others have established greater open physical aggressiveness in boys and men compared to girls and women. Women use hidden verbal and indirect aggression more often. The specificity of manifestations of aggressiveness is expressed in a significantly more pronounced instrumentalism of young men, their greater tendency to physical aggression and less reflexivity. Aggressive behavior In girls it is rather arbitrary and instrumental; in boys it is of an external nature (T.V. Nechipurenko).

There are differences in the formation of the character of adolescents and youth, which are manifested in the intellectual-cognitive, emotional-volitional and communicative spheres, as well as in the peculiarities of the formation of their gender identity (A. F. Filatova). The system-forming character traits for modern teenage boys are dominance, social maturity and expression of values; for girls - behavioral activity, social adaptation™ and expression of values.

Volitional character traits responsible for self-regulation of behavior also reflect gender specificity. Conscious regulation includes a number of mandatory conditions: overcoming obstacles encountered along the way, a high degree of motivation to complete the action, confidence in choosing the main motive, finding the meaning of performing the action, positive emotions, competent selection of ways to achieve goals. Gender differences were identified in manifestations of perseverance, risk-taking, and self-control (N. G. Makarova).

Of particular interest is the issue of differences in character accentuations. The feminine type (in both types) more often demonstrates emotive accentuation (which is interpreted as “effeminate”), the masculine type demonstrates a stuck type of accentuation (characterized as the desire to achieve high results). M.K. Omarova, using impressive experimental material, revealed that in boys, the eileptoid and gynerthymic types of character accentuation are significantly more common than in girls, and in girls - labile and psychasthenic types. The remaining types are represented almost equally in both.

The features of social perception differ, in particular in the perception of lies, untruth and deception by women and men (V.V. Znakov,

O. V. Barsukova), perception of advertising (I. V. Groshev), power and influence (I. V. Groshev), perception of facial expression (A. M. Beloborodov), appearance, clothing style and hairstyle (M. V. Burakova, V. A. Labunskaya), attitudes to success (G. V. Turetskaya), etc. E. P. Ilyin provides data on differences in vitality, developmental anomalies and morbidity of men and women.

The list of differences is extensive and varied; it is not possible to consider all indicators of gender specificity. Researchers pay attention to their dynamism, social and cultural conditioning, dependence on the nature and content of the individual’s activity. Many of the existing differences in the personality traits of people of different sexes can be changed during training, with changes in lifestyle and social expectations. The result of differential gender socialization is the development of gender self-awareness and identity, the assignment of gender stereotypes, behavioral characteristics and communication. The role of cultural and social factors is extremely important.

The difficulty of detecting gender specificity is due not only to the versatility of the tasks that women and men solve, the variability of their behavior, which allows or does not allow differences to be detected, but also the conditions for conducting psychological analysis (the gender of the experimenter, his stereotypes), and the significance of teaching technologies. Adequate training, based on differentiation of opportunities, significantly changes comparative results. I. S. Klyotsina gives an example comparative analysis results of testing spatial relationships among American high school students, which showed that over the past twenty years, girls’ spatial abilities have grown significantly in the conditions of specialized gender-oriented education.

So, summarizing the results of studying the psychological differences between men and women, we can state the following.

Active study of gender differences has shown, on the one hand, their stability, and on the other, a tendency to smooth out. The listed differences between male and female representatives are no more than 10%; in most cases, the distributions of male and female samples are the same.

Gender plays a huge role in the life of every person, determining the pace and event intensity of an individual’s social activity, his speed of reaction and the degree of adaptability to social transformations. Scientists state that the formation of morphological and functional differences in the male and female brain is determined by the influence of sex hormones, starting from the prenatal period and throughout all periods of life. This mediates the formation of psychological differences. Gender differences ensure the integrity of the mechanism of mental regulation of behavior and personality activity at the hormonal-chromosomal level, in the interhemispheric asymmetry of the brain, motor characteristics, psychophysiological properties and temperamental characteristics (I. V. Groshev). Sex-role dimorphism and differentiation determine the peculiarities of the development of personal qualities.

See: Maccoby E. E. Jacklin S. N. The Psychology of sex differences. Standford, Calif., 1974.

A person’s life position, his worldview, and value orientations, including in the field of family relationships, are influenced by a number of features and differences: personal, age, gender. The latter are the most interesting for us.

The very concept of “gender” began to be used relatively recently; it is defined as “socio-psychological sex” and is used to describe the socio-psychological characteristics of sex as opposed to biological ones.

Gender

1. (General meaning) - the difference between men and women by anatomical sex.

2. (Sociological meaning) a social division often based on, but not necessarily the same as, anatomical sex. Thus, the sociological use of the term may differ from everyday use.

In psychology, gender is a socio-biological characteristic with which people define the concepts of “man” and “woman”. Social psychologists believe that the two main reasons people try to conform to gender expectations are normative and informational pressures. The term "normative pressure" describes the mechanism by which a person is forced to adapt to social or group expectations so that society does not reject him.

Punishment for refusing to follow gender roles can be harsh. Ayatollah Khomeini, ruler of Iran from 1979 to the mid-1980s. repealed all laws giving women any rights, and sentenced to death a total of 20 thousand women who did not follow clear rules governing their dress and behavior.

Information pressure is caused by the fact that, expanding our knowledge about ourselves and the world, trying to understand what position we should take on certain social issues, we rely more on own experience, but on information provided by others. To determine what exactly is right, we try to find out what others think is right, and we consider our behavior to be so while we observe it in others. The same applies to gender roles. When we look around and see men and women doing different things, and hear people and the media around us emphasize how big the difference is between men and women, we come to the conclusion that this is actually the case and live up to those expectations. . However, sometimes we change our social behavior to bring it into line with social norms, even if in fact we do not accept them. This type of submission is called compliance; type

behavior when a person completely agrees with the norms - approval, internalization. The third type is identification, in this case we repeat the actions of role models simply because we want to be like them.

Gender establishes what men should do and what women should do, as well as social information that instills in people how great the difference is between men and women. Specialists involved in developmental psychology use the term differential socialization to describe the process in which we teach that there are things that are characteristic of some and unusual for others, depending on the gender of the learner.

It is believed that the term “gender” was first introduced into science by the American psychoanalyst Robert Stoller, when his work “Sex and Gender” was published in 1968: about the development of masculinity and femininity. According to R. Stoller, gender is a concept that is based on psychological and cultural explanations that are quite independent from those that interpret biological sex.

Differences between men and women have received more research attention. On average, women are superior to men in verbal abilities and inferior to them in mathematical and spatial abilities.

Let's look at the differences between a man and a woman.

Psychological differences

Scientists have been studying psychological differences between the sexes for a long time, trying to find an explanation for the ancient stereotypes of behavior. It would seem that nature itself destined a man to hunt for food and fight enemies, and a woman to cradle a child and keep the fire burning in the hearth. A. Gesel discovered that boys have better developed gross motor skills compared to girls, while girls have better developed fine motor skills. A comparison of intelligence and abilities showed differences: women, compared to men, have a larger vocabulary, higher fluency and clarity of speech, but the overall intelligence index in men is slightly higher. Perception and attention to changes in details are usually better developed in the female part of the population, but they are more likely to make mistakes in assessing spatial relationships. Technical abilities develop earlier and are better expressed in boys. V. M. Rusalov discovered differences in the study of temperamental characteristics. Women have higher indicators of social plasticity and emotionality, while men have higher indicators of energy, plasticity and individual pace.

Manifestations of emotionality can be presented in the form of a table in comparison:

Men are characterized by a wider sphere of activity, flexibility of thinking, desire to work, high speed of operations when carrying out objective activities, and women are characterized by ease of entering into social contacts, increased sensitivity to failures at work and in communication, anxiety, empathy, and caring.

Gender variability in speech behavior

Women more often speak in the first person, and men in an impersonal form. Women interrupt their interlocutor less often and speak more correct, literary language. Their language avoids frivolity, harshness, banter, name-calling, slang, etc. Women prefer to communicate in inverted word order; their speech contains more unfinished sentences, which have their own expressive subtext. Women's language is more accurate. As a rule, feminine individuals are better oriented in names color range, in the case of using them in their work, and muscular individuals for the same reason use terms associated with various technical tools. In order to demonstrate their belonging to the feminine subculture, people quite often oversaturate their speech with adjectives. It was found that male speech is characterized by: persistence, demandingness, authoritarianism, the desire to seize the initiative in a conversation, and aggressiveness. Muscular individuals, when denoting their subculture, tend to use rude, profanity. However, in the use of profanity, men and women may show many more similarities than differences, i.e. that's the question gender identification, not sexuality.

Gender and nonverbal communication

Interpersonal communication is largely carried out through nonverbal means of communication, which strengthen or weaken speech influences and help determine the gender identity of communication partners. IN nonverbal communication of a person, her gender identity is expressed through expressiveness, non-verbal sensitivity, spatial and tactile behavior. While many studies have found women to be more prone to smiling than men, psychologists have concluded that this nonverbal behavior is also linked to gender identity. Another element of nonverbal behavior - eye contact - is also interconnected with gender characteristics. Women look at their interlocutor more often and longer during listening than during speaking, and among men there are no significant differences in the frequency of looking during periods of listening and speaking. When studying tactile behavior, it was noted that men more often use touching others, and women touch each other more often, their touches are more intimate.

Mutual understanding and gender

The emergence and successful development of relationships, as well as the process of interpersonal communication, is possible only if mutual understanding is established between its participants. The extent to which people reflect the characteristics, feelings, intentions of each other, perceive and understand others, and through them themselves, largely determines the process of communication itself, and the relationships that develop between them, and the ways in which it will be carried out. collaboration. The main sources of the formation of ideas about the personality of another person are his appearance, behavior, characteristics and performance results. Appearance, primarily the outline of a hairstyle, allows us to construct an image of a partner’s gender identity. The interpretation of the external appearance of a communication partner is influenced by the masculinity-femininity of communication partners, manifested in their gender interpretive scheme, which allows them to be endowed with certain gender characteristics and fit them into certain models of gender relations.

Features of moral consciousness in men and women

In his studies of people's moral relations, L. Kohlberg identified the basis - personal honesty and respect for the rights of others. Manifestations of “male and female” morality have been noted in many studies. Thus, ranking by importance the 15 terminal values ​​of M. Rokeach, Russian women They answered “honesty” in 7th place, and “truthfulness” in 11th place. Men ranked “honesty” in 6th place, and “truthfulness” in 9th. In the USA, men and women give 1st and 2nd places to these values.

For men, lies and deception, as a rule, are situational: they can describe the situation in which they lie more accurately than women, and are clearly aware of why and for what purpose they are doing it. And since they know the circumstances in which they violate the moral norm known to them, they are more critical than women of their own honesty. When describing the essence of lies and deception, men usually give a cognitive and moral assessment of judgments that do not correspond to objective reality. Women emphasize that in communication, the strongest emotional impression on them is not distortion of facts, but lies and deception (sometimes their own, sometimes others) with the aim of hiding or misrepresenting true thoughts and feelings.

Let's compare the personal qualities that are more developed in men and women and present them in the form of a table.

Based on the table, we can conclude that personal qualities are a specific construction of psychological traits and behavioral models that are revealed in male and female spheres of activity.

Gender characteristics of influence

In the process of communication, people consciously or unconsciously influence each other’s mental state, feelings, thoughts and actions. The purpose of influence is the realization by a person of his personal needs, which are associated with a person’s gender characteristics.

The range of influence is quite wide. Women with a pronounced ability of personal influence (however, like men) differ from the average sample of their gender and are atypical women. In some of their properties, they are close to average men. Researchers of this phenomenon give the following explanation for this: in order to influence other people, men and women need a wider range of properties, including both muscular and feminine traits. According to V. M. Pogolsha, it is androgyny that contributes to more complete development and realization socio-psychological potential for personal influence, allows in the best possible way adapt to the environment, to a specific person or situation and at the same time change them. Influential women are capable of acquiring traits characteristic of the opposite sex. Thus, women, to their feminine traits - understanding, motivation to help, empathy, neuroticism, sociability, add traits characteristic of the generally male sample in the form of aggressiveness, confidence, motive for achievement.

Thus, differences between a man and a woman - intellectual, emotional - exist, but they are rather of a qualitative nature. Men and women perceive the surrounding reality differently and evaluate it differently. There are differences in the success of activities, in the ability to create something new, which have reasons for both sociocultural reality and biological nature. Genetically, men and women are adapted during development to perform different functions: men create new things, women preserve. This general pattern is reflected in intellectual differences, particularly in creativity.

Women seek constancy and certainty, while constantly changing, adapting to circumstances. Men strive for novelty, but their basic personality characteristics do not change, and they adapt the environment to themselves as much as possible.

The difference between gender and gender (from the English. gender - floor) behavior patterns often cause conflicts based on mutual misunderstanding) divergence of interests, values ​​and approaches to resolving emerging problems. There are as many myths, prejudices and stereotypes about gender characteristics of behavior and their role in communication between men and women as there are, probably, in no other area of ​​human relationships. Sometimes you can even hear such extreme (and hard-won) opinions that “men and women are from different planets,” or that “men are not people at all.”

Of course, it is impossible to agree with the popular idea that all women (or all men - underline what is necessary!) are the same. Nevertheless, it is possible to identify quite typical differences that give rise to conflicts between representatives of different sexes. Numerous discussions discuss whether natural or social factors are more important in these differences. Undoubtedly, both are involved here in one proportion or another. Without going into an analysis of this complex issue, let us turn mainly to the factual side of the matter.

According to the concept of V. A. Geodakyan 45, differentiation of the sexes is a means by which nature ensures the survival of biological systems. The system is divided into two parts: one (male) must ensure the variability of the gene pool necessary for the evolution of the system and its adaptation to changes in the external environment, the other (female) - preservation of the existing gene pool, i.e. stability, stability of the system. Therefore, the male part of the population differs from the female part by greater diversity in any parameter, a greater degree of deviations from the average values ​​(for example, there are more giants and dwarfs among men than among women). "A man is clay, a woman is marble." Nature experiments on males. The results of the experiments may or may not be successful, and what turns out to be useful is fixed in the body of the females. Since they are the ones who must pass on the best to their offspring, nature provides them with an increased degree of reliability and survival. In humans, this manifests itself both physically and psychologically.

A woman must complete a complex program of bearing and giving birth to offspring, so her body is more stable and has greater resistance to adverse influences. A newborn girl with some kind of disorder has a much greater chance of survival than a boy. As if taking this into account, nature ensures the birth of 105 boys per 100 girls, but this ratio changes radically with age, and the further, the more towards a decrease in the number of men compared to the number of women. Women live longer, are less susceptible to serious illnesses (physical and mental), and severe illnesses are much more common in men. 50 thousand Americans have crossed the 100-year mark; 48 thousand of them are women. Stability female body manifests itself at the level of physiological functions - for example, in the fact that women have a more constant composition of gastric juice than men. True (physiologically, hormonally determined) representatives of sexual minorities among men are 5 per thousand, and among women - 3 per thousand. At the psychological level, the stability characteristic of women is expressed in the fact that, in comparison with men, they are characterized by more pronounced conservatism, patience, and the ability to perform monotonous work.

Of great importance in shaping a woman’s gender behavior is that she should be able to grasp the nuances of well-being and ill-being small child. Research shows that it is extremely important for the mental health of a future adult that his mother provides him with unconditional love. Probably, in many ways, emotional sensitivity, responsiveness, conformity, and the need for emotional intimacy in women are connected with this. Chekhov (as a doctor who knew this first-hand) responds through the mouth of six-year-old Seryozha to a question about his mother’s health: “She’s a woman, and women always have some pain.” According to numerous data, men experience mental and physical well-being to a greater extent and for a longer period of time compared to women, who are less likely to have everything in order (but if men get sick or find themselves in a difficult situation, then...)

Men are more often at the extreme poles, while women gravitate towards the average expression of various properties. For example, as one of the answers to the age-old question of who is smarter, we can cite research data: among men there are more geniuses, highly gifted, and mentally retarded. Women are in the middle zone, and the differences between them are not so significant.

K. Jung in his “analytical psychology” puts forward the idea of ​​the existence of “anima” - a subconscious female part in the male psyche and, accordingly, “animus” - a subconscious male component in a woman’s psyche. During the period of falling in love, we identify the object of affection with this subconscious image. A person gets a chance to more deeply process, concretize and enrich his “anima” (or “animus”). If this does not happen, then a conclusion is made about the imperfection of the object, its inconsistency with the “ideal” and the search for a new object begins to project the “anima” or “animus” onto it. Thus, a person uses or does not use the chance to achieve deep understanding and harmony with members of the other sex and, accordingly, overcomes or reinforces the conflict potential of gender difference.

According to K. Jung, often “animus” or “anima” are realized at an undifferentiated infantile level, and their assimilation remains superficial. This finds expression, for example, in the masculine behavior of women or the effeminate behavior of men. The discrepancy between gender behavior and expectations associated with cultural norms for fulfilling a gender role undoubtedly also generates increased tension and conflict in interactions between people. For example, a female leader is expected to be more gentle and responsive to subordinates than a male leader. But if she does not show such traits, then this causes a much more negative reaction than his lack of them.

The problem of conflict and aggressiveness of men and women is solved ambiguously. Outwardly, men look much more aggressive. Boys, for example, fight more often, disobey their parents, rebel against teachers, and so on. However, girls have their own, less obvious ways to show aggression and conflict. The most typical of their methods of negative influence are boycott, emotional rejection, and isolation. According to Eastern teachings, yin- the feminine principle is dark, unclear and dangerous, in contrast to the clear and open masculine yang Let us remember, for example, the notorious “women’s team” with its intrigues, undercurrents and other complex emotional conflicts. At the same time, women are more careful and do not go to extremes, to a direct threat to life and health, to an open violation of basic social norms.

The issue of intergender aggression is also controversial. At the animal level, there are very strict instinctive taboos against displaying aggression towards females. As K. Lorenz notes 46, if a male dog shows aggression towards a female dog even in response to her attack, then he cannot be considered mentally normal and safe for humans. Dog breeders and cat lovers know how many bites a male must endure from a female in order to deserve the happiness of close communication with the “lady,” even with a “positive answer.”

A person has many similar deep attitudes. However, here too people have won a “victory” over nature: many men can easily hit a woman with more than just a flower. However, social norms still dictate that physical aggression against women should be avoided, and men tend to adhere to these norms.

At the same time, experiments show that even men focused on observing culturally prescribed etiquette are ready to react aggressively to neglect from a woman for fear of looking worse in her eyes 47 . This fear suppresses the desire not to harm the woman. Thus, the objects of chivalry are usually meek, non-aggressive, harmless women.

According to Deborah Tannen's definition, 48 men live in a world of status, and women live in a world of intimacy. In accordance with this, the former are fighting for their independence, protecting their dignity in every possible way from even seeming attacks, and the latter are fighting for achieving and maintaining emotional intimacy, fearing, first of all, rejection and isolation.

Boys compete in their games, defining the hierarchy and their status in it. Their games have clear rules and criteria for success. Boys are tolerant of differences and even welcome them. Girls' games are often aimed at modeling relationships; they usually do not have strict rules or criteria for success and involve cooperation. Girls are not encouraged to demonstrate success. Those of them who try to stand out with their achievements receive nicknames like “imaginers.” Girls are focused on equality and are intolerant of differences. Subsequently, women, like girls, often hide their abilities for fear of displeasing their female friends or colleagues. Even in the family, they sacrifice success and self-realization for the sake of maintaining relationships.

Very often, conflicts between men and women arise due to different readings of messages to each other, especially since women are less inclined to speak directly, especially about their desires. Thus, an invitation made by a woman to discuss an issue or to negotiate often sounds to a man like a request for information or a decision being made by him.

For example, to the question: “Would you like to go to a cafe?” a man can sincerely answer: “No,” and a woman will be deeply offended that her desire to go there was ignored. Often a woman’s question is like: “What do you think about..?” entails a man making a decision.

As a result, the woman expresses dissatisfaction due to her interests being ignored, and the man believes that she herself does not know what she wants.

The exchange of fleeting feelings and details of information for a woman is a means and evidence of achieving intimacy. Men consider this petty and do not like to go into “insignificant” details. An attempt by women to ask men about the details of what happened to them or to tell about their impressions often ends in conflict.

A story about hardships and troubles for women is, first of all, an attempt to get sympathy, “stroking,” as E. Berne puts it. It is this reaction that for them is evidence of emotional closeness and empathy. Often they do not expect concrete action in response to their complaints. Men, on the other hand, feel obligated to respond “with action” to the problems raised. They tend to give advice or offer a solution, help - instead of sympathetically listening to “experiences”. They get very angry when the recommendations they make are not implemented and the same complaints are repeated again. For women, repeating the same complaints is a way to “speak out” and thereby alleviate their condition; they need to receive in return confirmation of emotional concern for them. However, men endure such collisions with great difficulty.

Often, hearing about any troubles of the interlocutor, a man does not ask questions and changes the topic out of delicacy and respect for the independence of the other. But if the interlocutor is a woman, then she, as a rule, perceives this as a lack of interest in her problems, and, consequently, in herself.

If the situation is such that a man is unable to really help in any way, he can be very annoyed that he is made to feel his own helplessness and inadequacy, although the woman has never thought of anything like that. In a woman, his irritation can be caused by the thought that “God forgot to put his soul into him.”

In turn, a man may perceive expressions of sympathy addressed to him and a desire to help him as a hint of his weakness and an attempt to dominate him. As K. Whitaker said, “You cannot sympathize with someone you admire.” Men prefer admiration to sympathy.

If a woman hears about some of her partner’s troubles, she often tries to join in and show that she has had similar troubles, so she understands it and empathizes with him. This is often perceived by a man as his humiliation.

If a woman is invited somewhere, and she replies that she needs to consult with her husband, then she is pleased to make it clear that there is closeness and a desire to take into account each other’s interests between her and her husband. A similar response from a man is often interpreted as evidence of his dependence, the position of a “henpecked” man.

These are some possible sources of conflict between men and women. Of course, these are only general patterns, and individual differences may overlap them.

When criticizing the equality movement, people cannot explain the difference between the concepts of “gender” and “sex.” Feminists are portrayed as angry creatures, and few people have ever heard of male feminists. What are gender roles, stereotypes and characteristics? What are the differences between the concepts “gender” and “sex”? And why should you remove the M and F marks from your resume? In the article we answer all questions.

What is gender?

Gender is a socially constructed cluster that has nothing to do with biological sex. This is a social gender that a person chooses at will. It was introduced into circulation to separate the sexual and socially organized characteristics of a person. The term "gender" is English words with Latin roots, meaning grammatical gender. Russian also has a grammatical definition of gender. But for the purity of the research, they decided not to mix these two concepts.

Gender identity is the core sense of belonging to one's chosen gender. Moreover, gender does not necessarily mean male or female. Today you can assign yourself a “third” gender that does not fit into the binary system of understanding. There may be several representatives of the third gender. Today, the UN and the European Union have adopted documents according to which the existence of more than 50 genders has been proven.

Respectively gender roles- social norms that define the rules of behavior of a person who is confident in his gender identity. Gender or social roles of men and women are prescribed at the state level. But outdated ideas about women's and men's activities are limiting. This applies to profession, work, hobbies, maternity leave.

Evolution of the concept of gender.

Gender identity has always worried people, but it has become a subject of scientific research relatively recently. The discoverer of the term is considered to be an American sexologist and psychoanalyst. Robert Stoller. In 1958, he published Sex and Gender, which proposed a separation between biological and cultural studies of sex. But the concept became widespread in the 1970s thanks to a new wave of movement

In the 1980s, a new direction was formed in the science of women's history - gender history. But unlike feminist theory, it sought to provide a holistic picture of gender relations. Before this, it was generally accepted that biological sex determined physiological, anatomical, as well as psychological and behavioral differences. The main idea of ​​gender history is that it replaces biological affiliation based on the “gender-gender” principle with socio-cultural affiliation based on the “gender-sex” principle.

Over the past three decades, the concept of gender equality has become popular throughout the world and has formed the basis of many national laws and international documents. Equal gender role implies the same rights and responsibilities of people in all areas of life: education, work and career, creating a family and raising children.

The attitude of religion to gender psychology today is ambiguous. On the one hand, most religious teachings are based on the fact that salvation is due to every sincere believer. But on the other hand, religious postulates were created at a time when women were excluded from public life. Conservative norms still lead to criticism of gender ideology today.

Gender characteristics: 5 myths about the differences between men and women.

Gender is formed and develops in direct connection with biological characteristics and

According to psychologists, boys and girls recognize their gender by the age of two, but do not fully understand what it is. By the age of 5-7, gender identity is formed under the influence of upbringing, experience and environmental expectations. The next stage is puberty, accompanied by body changes, erotic fantasies and romantic experiences. This period has a strong influence on subsequent gender differences. And only at the age of 17-25 years does the stage of socialization take place, when a person’s worldview, his ideas about himself and others are formed.

Want to make better decisions, find your ideal career and realize your maximum potential? Find out for free what kind of person you were destined to become at birth by the system

But the point is that raising a child in many families, kindergartens and schools relies solely on his biological sex. This is manifested in everything: from the choice of color of the stroller, clothes, toys to expectations and standards of behavior. Thus, girls are expected to love bows, dolls, be sociable, and have exemplary behavior. They are read fairy tales about fairies and princesses. Boys are credited with an analytical mind, restraint, and an interest in cars and airplanes. The idea that boys and girls we just have to to be different from each other has permeated our entire culture.

But many ideas about what is inherent in girls or boys turned out to be nothing more than a myth. Research has proven that children have much fewer similarities than differences. For example, differences in mathematical abilities manifested themselves in 8% of cases; differences in text comprehension were found in 1% of children. And these numbers can be continued. If you look at the data with an open mind, you will notice that all studies of sex differences have only confirmed their similarities.

But in the world of adults, gender myths are not decreasing:

Myth 1. Biological differences in sex are a given, which is undesirable and unsafe to change.

In fact, most characteristics turn out to be acquired. Different requirements, upbringing, and activities shape different qualities. Thus, from childhood, girls are taught to cook and run a household; boys are instilled with a love of technology and developed physical endurance. Thus, most differences are formed through socialization, which can be changed if desired.

Myth 2. Women are inferior to men in terms of intellectual abilities, logic, and professional competence.

It’s paradoxical, but in the era of women’s successes in politics, economics, and management, concerns about their mental abilities are heard from everywhere. This also supports the opinion of women’s low competence, their inability to think strategically and make decisions. But this is nothing more than an opinion.

Myth 3. Men are incapable of caring and empathy, but women are genetically disposed to show

The results of the study showed that men and women are endowed with the same emotionality. But the differences in social norms and expectations do not give men the opportunity to express their feelings. From childhood, a boy is taught that tears are a sign of an unmasculine character. Therefore, refusal of emotional firmness is nothing more than the fear of being unworthy of the title of “real man.”

Myth 4. Women dream of getting married, but men don’t need marriage.

From childhood, girls are taught the “correct” model of life, according to which it will become complete only after marriage and the birth of children. Boys live with the expectation that women are trying to lasso them, sit on their necks. But a man can achieve career growth and status only if his rear is well protected. It turns out, married life gives a man the opportunity to conquer heights rather than solve everyday problems.

Myth 5. Gender equality has been achieved, there is no point in continuing to fight.

According to statistics, 88% of recruiters purposefully search for a candidate of a certain gender. No matter how trite, but the reason for this is social stereotypes. It is believed that women are more prone to routine work, while men are ambitious and persistent. To eliminate such prejudices when hiring an employee, in some countries photos and some biographical abilities were removed from the application form. But the situation with gender inequality remains just as relevant.

Myth 6. Girls prefer soft pink, boys prefer sky blue.

The girls' department in a children's clothing store is unmistakably recognizable by the abundance of pink. Boys are given restrained shades of blue, gray and azure. But during the experiments, the connection between color preferences and gender was not revealed. The children chose pink no more often than anyone else. But adult women and men named blue the most favorite and popular color.

What is gender dysphoria?

If we consider the term dysphoria, it is a mental state that is the opposite. A person in a state of dysphoria is extremely irritable and aggressive towards others. Accordingly, gender dysphoria is a state of acute dissatisfaction of a person who is unable to fully accept his gender status. This is how dictionaries describe it.

To put it simply, this is a state when the body rebels against the brain and against the soul. This is more than a psychological problem. This is a painful internal conflict that psychologists, psychiatrists, friends, loved ones and relatives are unable to reconcile. This feeling is always inside.

Gender in advertising.

In addition to the main function of “selling a product,” modern advertising has another important function - popularizing the model of relationships between men and women. In advertising pictures and commercials there are stereotyped images: men are presented as successful, rich, confident, and women are presented as erotic, economical, and caring.

For women, advertising more often offered one of three models of behavior: seductress, hostess or romantic nature. Moreover, the superiority of men was emphasized in every possible way. But today the woman in advertising looks different. More often she is an independent, versatile, integral person, ready to achieve success in life without the help of a man. She can be anyone: a pilot, a commercial director, an Olympic champion or a car mechanic.

Gender stereotypes - why are they?

Socially organized differences between the sexes are promoted and exploited by the state to its advantage. There are laws and regulations that prescribe what roles men and women should have. Although the problem of stereotyping has been solved for many years, it evokes little sympathy in the minds. And both in men's and women's.

Conflicts regarding the distribution of female and male responsibilities exist in all spheres of life, but are more often identified during work. Women have fought for their rights for a long time and have significantly succeeded in this. But gender influences our decisions even when we don’t notice it:

• When hiring, preference is given to a man, because he is unlikely to go on maternity leave.
• The same achievements at work more often lead to a promotion for a male employee.
• A man's promotion is recognized as well-deserved, while a woman's promotion is associated with her ability to use her charms.
• When new visitors enter the office, the man is a priori recognized as senior in position.

Life goes by too quickly to waste it on quarrels, figuring out “who’s in charge,” or loneliness. Strong woman able to love, support, inspire. A generous man knows how to forgive, care, and love. Getting rid of stereotypes will help us achieve spiritual intimacy, which we so lack.

Conclusions:

• Gender is social organization relations between the sexes.
• Old, archaic ideas about femininity and masculinity limit the extent of a person.
• Due to the small number of differences between men and women, the concept of “gender” was introduced - as a certain social sex that a person accepts as a result of socialization.
• Gender stereotypes are double standards that assign certain roles to men or women.